Case: Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania

2:16-cv-05664 | U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania

Filed Date: Oct. 30, 2016

Closed Date: Nov. 9, 2016

Clearinghouse coding complete

Case Summary

This is a voter intimidation case in which the Pennsylvania Democratic Party filed a lawsuit to enjoin the Pennsylvania Republican Party, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, and Stop the Steal, Inc. from conspiring to suppress minority voting during the November 8, 2016 general election. On October 30, 2016, the Pennsylvania Democratic Party filed this lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. The Plaintiff sued the Pennsylvania Repub…

This is a voter intimidation case in which the Pennsylvania Democratic Party filed a lawsuit to enjoin the Pennsylvania Republican Party, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, and Stop the Steal, Inc. from conspiring to suppress minority voting during the November 8, 2016 general election.

On October 30, 2016, the Pennsylvania Democratic Party filed this lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. The Plaintiff sued the Pennsylvania Republican Party, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, and Stop the Steal, Inc. alleging imminent voter intimidation in violation of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (52 U.S.C. § 10301 et seq.) and the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (42 U.S.C. § 1985(3)). Represented by private counsel, Plaintiffs sought declaratory and immediate injunctive relief, including declaring that Defendants’ “exit polling” and “citizen journalist” initiatives were contrary to law, and restraining Defendants from blocking the entrance to the polling place, asking voters for documentation when none was required, disrupting voting lines, disseminating false or misleading election information, photographing or videotaping voters, any ostentatious showing of weapons at a polling place, verbal or physical confrontation of voters by persons dressed in official-looking uniforms or violence or using the threat of violence to interfere with a person’s right to vote, with such sought injunction requested to be effective immediately through the general elections of November 8, 2016. The case was assigned to Judge Paul S. Diamond. 

On November 4 and November 6, 2016, the Defendants filed a series of responses to Plaintiff’s motion for a temporary restraining order, arguing that the claims asserted in Plaintiff’s motion are baseless, unsubstantiated, conspiracy-theory notions of voter intimidation, noting that such motion was filed ten days before the general election. Defendant further argued that federal courts typically do not issue “obey-the-law” injunctions absent compelling evidence that the law will not otherwise be followed, citing Belitskus v. Pizzingrilli, 343 F.3d 632, 650 (3d Cir. 2003). Last, Defendants argued that First Amendment free speech rights of Defendants would be violated if the Court were to agree to issue injunctive relief.

On November 6, 2016, the Defendants filed an objection and a Motion to Quash Subpoena, and a Motion for a Protective Order, arguing that Plaintiff’s subpoena served to the personal residence of the Chairman of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania to appear in court the next day was in violation of Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, subjecting  the Chairman to undue burden to travel to appear in court the day before the election.

That same day, Defendants filed a motion to dismiss the Plaintiff’s compliant with prejudice on the ground of failure to state a claim or support its claim that Defendants’ actions violated the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1871.

Plaintiff objected to Defendants’ objection and Motion to Quash, noting that the Chairman of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania was on notice for a week that he was pivotal to the complaint and was notified more than 24 hours before the requested court appearance of his need to be present in court on November 7, 2016.

On November 7, 2016, the Court issued a Memorandum, denying Plaintiff’s motion for injunctive relief, concluding that the Plaintiff had not made the required “clear showing” of entitlement to seek such relief. The Court cited lawsuits filed in other states and the courts in those other jurisdictions denying similar motions for injunctive relief. The Court also referred to Plaintiff’s delay following the filing of its Complaint to file the emergency motion for injunctive relief until two business days before the general election, and failed to seek expedited discovery with the election looming. The Court’s memorandum also indicated a reluctance to restrict Defendant’s Election Day speech and conduct based on Plaintiff’s evidence which consisted mostly of media reports. Last, the Court concluded that Plaintiff failed to show that any Defendant engaged or will engage in voter intimidation in the district in which the Court presides. The Court issued an Order that same day denying the Plaintiff’s Motion for a Temporary Restraining Order and also further dismissing the Defendant’s Motion to Dismiss without prejudice.

Two days later on November 9, 2016 (one day following the general election), Plaintiff voluntarily dismissed its Complaint. The case is closed. 

Summary Authors

(5/27/2024)

People

For PACER's information on parties and their attorneys, see: https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4528227/parties/pennsylvania-democratic-party-v-donald-j-trump-for-president-inc/


Judge(s)
Attorney for Plaintiff

ARONCHICK, MARK A. (Pennsylvania)

BANKS, MATTHEW BINGHAM (Pennsylvania)

BARTON, THOMAS JOSEPH (Pennsylvania)

BAXTER, ASHLEY (Pennsylvania)

BONIN, ADAM C. (Pennsylvania)

Attorney for Defendant

Documents in the Clearinghouse

Documents in this case
1

2:16-cv-05664

Voter Intimidation Complaint Pursuant to the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Oct. 30, 2016

Oct. 30, 2016

Complaint
14

2:16-cv-05664

Plaintiff's Motion for a Temporary Restraining Order and/or Preliminary Injunction

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 3, 2016

Nov. 3, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
26

2:16-cv-05664

Defendant Republican Party of Pennsylvania Response in Opposition to Plaintiff's Motion for a Temporary Restraining Order and Preliminary Injunction

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 4, 2016

Nov. 4, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
41

2:16-cv-05664

Joint Response of Defendants Republican Party of Pennsylvania and Donald J. Trump for President, Inc. to Plaintiff's Motion for Temporary Restraining Order and Preliminary Injunction

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 4, 2016

Nov. 4, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
29

2:16-cv-05664

Plaintiff's Reply Memorandum of Law in Support of Temporary Restraining Order and/or Preliminary Injunction

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 5, 2016

Nov. 5, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
30

2:16-cv-05664

Surreply of Defendant Donald J. Trump for President, Inc. to Plaintiff's Motion for Temporary Restraining Order and Preliminary Injunction

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 6, 2016

Nov. 6, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
31

2:16-cv-05664

Defendant Republican Party of Pennsylvania Motion to Dismiss and Objection to Proposed Order

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 6, 2016

Nov. 6, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
32

2:16-cv-05664

Defendant Republican Party of Pennsylvania's Objections, Motion to Quash Subpoena, and Motion for Protective Order

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 6, 2016

Nov. 6, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief
36

2:16-cv-05664

[Amended Letter Reply to Response to Motion for Temporary Restraining Order]

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 7, 2016

Nov. 7, 2016

Correspondence
37

2:16-cv-05664

Plaintiff's Response to Defendant Republican Party of Pennsylvania's Objections, Motion to Quash Subpoena and Motion for Protective Order

Pennsylvania Democratic Party v. Republican Party of Pennsylvania, Donald J. Trump for President, Inc., Roger J. Stone, Jr. and Stop the Steal, Inc.

Nov. 7, 2016

Nov. 7, 2016

Pleading / Motion / Brief

Docket

See docket on RECAP: https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/4528227/pennsylvania-democratic-party-v-donald-j-trump-for-president-inc/

Last updated June 29, 2026, 5:21 a.m.

Docket for: PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY v. DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC.
ECF Number Date Description Link
1 Oct. 30, 2016

COMPLAINT against All Defendants ( Filing fee $ 400 receipt number 149304.), filed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY. (Attachments: # 1 Civil Cover Sheets)(tj, ) (Entered: 10/31/2016)

1 Civil Cover Sheets

View on PACER

Clearinghouse
2 Oct. 30, 2016

Disclosure Statement Form pursuant to FRCP 7.1 by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY.(tj, ) (Entered: 10/31/2016)

RECAP
Oct. 30, 2016

Summons Issued

3 Oct. 31, 2016

MOTION for Pro Hac Vice to Admit Dawn L. Smalls filed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY. (FILING FEE PAID 10/31/2016) Certificate of Service.(ARONCHICK, MARK) Modified on 11/1/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 10/31/2016)

RECAP
4 Oct. 31, 2016

MOTION for Pro Hac Vice to Admit Marc E. Elias filed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY. (FILING FEE PAID 10/31/2016) Certificate of Service.(ARONCHICK, MARK) Modified on 11/1/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 10/31/2016)

RECAP
5 Oct. 31, 2016

MOTION for Pro Hac Vice to Admit Michael J. Gottlieb filed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY. (FILING FEE PAID 10/31/2016) Certificate of Service.(ARONCHICK, MARK) Modified on 11/1/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 10/31/2016)

RECAP
Oct. 31, 2016

Summons Issued

6 Nov. 1, 2016

ORDER THAT UPON CONSIDERATION OF THE MOTIONS TO ADMIT DAWN L. SMALLS, MARC E. ELIAS, AND MICHAEL J. GOTTLIEB PRO HAC VICE PURSUANT TO LOCAL RULE 83.5.2(b) (DOC. NOS. 3, 4, 5), IT IS HEREBY ORDERED THAT THE MOTIONS (DOC. NOS. 3, 4, 5) ARE GRANTED. MS. SMALLS, MR. ELIAS, AND MR. GOTTLIEB ARE ADMITTED PRO HAC VICE AS COUNSEL IN THIS CASE. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 10/31/16.11/1/16 ENTERED AND ECF APPLICATION & COPIES MAILED TO UNREPS, MAILED AND E-MAILED.(ti, ) Modified on 11/1/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 11/01/2016)

RECAP
7 Nov. 1, 2016

INITIAL STANDING ORDER SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/1/16. 11/1/16 ENTERED AND COPIES MAILED AND E-MAILED.(ti, ) Modified on 11/1/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 11/01/2016)

Clearinghouse
8 Nov. 2, 2016

SUMMONS Returned Executed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY re: Harry Gordon served Summons and Complaint upon REPUBLICAN PARTY OF PENNSYLVANIA by Personal Service. REPUBLICAN PARTY OF PENNSYLVANIA served on 10/31/2016, answer due 11/21/2016. (ARONCHICK, MARK) (Entered: 11/02/2016)

RECAP
9 Nov. 2, 2016

SUMMONS Returned Executed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY re: Dawn L. Smalls served Summons and Complaint upon DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC. by Hand Delivery. DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC. served on 11/1/2016, answer due 11/22/2016. (ARONCHICK, MARK) (Entered: 11/02/2016)

RECAP
10 Nov. 2, 2016

ORDER THAT PLAINTIFF SHALL PERSONALLY SERVE THE COMPLAINT AND THIS ORDER UPON ALL DEFENDANTS NO LATER THAN 12:00 NOON ON THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 2016; PLAINTIFF SHALL FILE A MOTION AND SUPPORTING MEMORANDUM RESPECTING ITS CLAIM FOR EMERGENCY INJUNCTIVE RELIEF NO LATER THAN 5:00 P.M. ON THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 2016 ETC. AND A HEARING IS SCHEDULED BEFORE ME FOR 1:30 P.M. ON MONDAY, NOVEMBER 7, 2016 IN COURTROOM 6-B, 6TH FLOOR, JAMES A. BYRNE UNITED STATES COURTHOUSE 601 MARKET STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA 19106. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/2/16. 11/2/16 ENTERED AND COPIES MAILED TO UNREP, PRO SE AND EMAILED TO COUNSEL.(jaa, ) (Entered: 11/02/2016)

Clearinghouse
11 Nov. 3, 2016

ORDER THAT THE PARTIES SHALL SUBMIT THE NAMES AND TITLES OF ANY WITNESSES THEY INTEND TO CALL AT MONDAY'S HEARING NO LATER THAN 12:00 NOON TOMORROW, FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 4, 2016. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/3/16. 11/3/16 ENTERED AND COPIES MAILED TO UNREPS, MAILED AND E-MAILED.(ti, ) (Main Document 11 replaced on 11/3/2016) (ti, ). (Entered: 11/03/2016)

RECAP
12 Nov. 3, 2016

NOTICE of Appearance by THOMAS C. SULLIVAN on behalf of DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC. (SULLIVAN, THOMAS) (Entered: 11/03/2016)

RECAP
13 Nov. 3, 2016

NOTICE of Appearance by BRUCE S. MARKS on behalf of DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC. (MARKS, BRUCE) (Entered: 11/03/2016)

RECAP
14 Nov. 3, 2016

MOTION for Temporary Restraining Order filed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY.Memorandum and Declaration. (Attachments: # 1 Text of Proposed Order Proposed Order, # 2 Memorandum Memorandum of Law, # 3 Declaration Gottlieb Declaration, # 4 Exhibit Exhibit 1, # 5 Exhibit Exhibit 2, # 6 Exhibit Exhibit 3, # 7 Exhibit Exhibit 4, # 8 Exhibit Exhibit 5, # 9 Exhibit Exhibit 6, # 10 Exhibit Exhibit 7, # 11 Exhibit Exhibit 8, # 12 Exhibit Exhibit 9, # 13 Exhibit Exhibit 10, # 14 Exhibit Exhibit 11, # 15 Exhibit Exhibit 12, # 16 Exhibit Exhibit 13, # 17 Exhibit Exhibit 14, # 18 Exhibit Exhibit 15, # 19 Exhibit Exhibit 16, # 20 Exhibit Exhibit 17, # 21 Exhibit Exhibit 18, # 22 Exhibit Exhibit 19, # 23 Exhibit Exhibit 20, # 24 Exhibit Exhibit 21, # 25 Exhibit Exhibit 22, # 26 Exhibit Exhibit 23, # 27 Exhibit Exhibit 24, # 28 Expert Report)(GOTTLIEB, MICHAEL) (Entered: 11/03/2016)

Clearinghouse
15 Nov. 4, 2016

SUMMONS Returned Executed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY re: James E. Voelkl, Jr. served Summons and Complaint upon STOP THE STEAL INC.. STOP THE STEAL INC. served on 11/3/2016, answer due 11/25/2016. (GOTTLIEB, MICHAEL) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
16 Nov. 4, 2016

SUMMONS Returned Executed by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY re: James E. Voelkl, Jr. served Summons and Complaint upon ROGER J. STONE, JR. ROGER J. STONE, JR served on 11/3/2016, answer due 11/25/2016. (GOTTLIEB, MICHAEL) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
17 Nov. 4, 2016

ORDER THAT THE HEARING SCHEDULED FOR 1:30 PM ON 11/7/2016 IS RESCHEDULED TO 10:00 AM, ETC. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/4/16. 11/4/16 ENTERED AND COPIES MAILED TO UNREPS AND E-MAILED.(ti, ) Modified on 11/4/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
18 Nov. 4, 2016

MOTION for Pro Hac Vice to admit Chad A. Readler filed by DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC. (FILING FEE PAID 11/4/2016) Certificate of Service. (Attachments: # 1 Exhibit A, # 2 Text of Proposed Order, # 3 Certificate of Service)(MARKS, BRUCE) Modified on 11/4/2016 (ti, ). (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
19 Nov. 4, 2016

NOTICE of Appearance by LAWRENCE J. TABAS on behalf of REPUBLICAN PARTY OF PENNSYLVANIA with Certificate of Service(TABAS, LAWRENCE) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
20 Nov. 4, 2016

Witness List by PENNSYLVANIA DEMOCRATIC PARTY. CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE (GOTTLIEB, MICHAEL) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
21 Nov. 4, 2016

ORDER THAT UPON CONSIDERATION OF THE MOTION TO ADMIT CHAD A. READLER PRO HAC VICE PURSUANT TO LOCAL RULE OF CIVIL PROCEDURE 83.5.2(b) 18, IT IS HEREBY ORDERED THAT THE MOTION IS GRANTED. MR. READLER IS ADMITTED PRO HAC VICE AS COUNSEL IN THIS CASE. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/4/16.11/4/16 ENTERED AND ECF APPLICATION & COPIES MAILED TO UNREPS, MAILED AND E-MAILED.(ti, ) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
22 Nov. 4, 2016

NOTICE of Appearance by REBECCA L. WARREN on behalf of REPUBLICAN PARTY OF PENNSYLVANIA with Certificate of Service(WARREN, REBECCA) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
23 Nov. 4, 2016

Witness List by REPUBLICAN PARTY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Certificate of Service (WARREN, REBECCA) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
24 Nov. 4, 2016

NOTICE of Appearance by MATTHEW BINGHAM BANKS on behalf of REPUBLICAN PARTY OF PENNSYLVANIA with Certificate of Service(BANKS, MATTHEW) (Entered: 11/04/2016)

RECAP
25 Nov. 4, 2016

Witness Disclosure by DONALD J. TRUMP FOR PRESIDENT, INC.. (Attachments: # 1 Certificate of Service)(SULLIVAN, THOMAS) Modified on 11/4/2016 (afm, ). (Entered: 11/04/2016)

1 Certificate of Service

View on PACER

RECAP
26 Nov. 4, 2016

Response in Opposition to Motion

Clearinghouse
27 Nov. 4, 2016

Motion for Leave to File Excess Pages

RECAP
40 Nov. 4, 2016

Order on Motion for Leave to File Excess Pages

RECAP
41 Nov. 4, 2016

Response to Motion

Clearinghouse
28 Nov. 5, 2016

Reply to Response to Motion

RECAP
29 Nov. 5, 2016

Reply to Response to Motion

Clearinghouse
30 Nov. 6, 2016

Response to Motion

Clearinghouse
31 Nov. 6, 2016

Dismiss for Failure to State a Claim

Clearinghouse
32 Nov. 6, 2016

Motion to Quash

Clearinghouse
33 Nov. 7, 2016

Declaration

RECAP
34 Nov. 7, 2016

Amended Document

RECAP
35 Nov. 7, 2016

Reply to Response to Motion

RECAP
36 Nov. 7, 2016

Amended Document

RECAP
37 Nov. 7, 2016

Response in Opposition to Motion

RECAP
38 Nov. 7, 2016

Order on Motion to Quash

RECAP
39 Nov. 7, 2016

Summons Returned Unexecuted

RECAP
42 Nov. 7, 2016

Memorandum

RECAP
43 Nov. 7, 2016

Declaration

RECAP
44 Nov. 7, 2016

Declaration

RECAP
45 Nov. 7, 2016

Declaration

RECAP
46 Nov. 7, 2016

Affidavit of Service

RECAP
47 Nov. 7, 2016

MEMORANDUM AND/OR OPINION. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/7/16. 11/7/16 ENTERED AND COPIES MAILED, E-MAILED.(rf, )

RECAP
48 Nov. 7, 2016

MEMORANDUM AND ORDER THAT PLAINTIFFS MOTION (DOC. 14) IS DENIED. FURTHER ORDERED THAT DEFENDANT RPP'S MOTION TO DISMISS (DOC. 31) IS DENIED WITHOUT PREJUDICE. SIGNED BY HONORABLE PAUL S. DIAMOND ON 11/7/16. 11/7/16 ENTERED AND COPIES MAILED, E-MAILED.(rf, )

RECAP
49 Nov. 7, 2016

Transcript - PDF

RECAP
50 Nov. 7, 2016

Notice of Filing of Official Transcript

RECAP
51 Nov. 9, 2016

Notice of Voluntary Dismissal

RECAP
52 Nov. 9, 2016

Motion Hearing

RECAP

Case Details

State / Territory:

Pennsylvania

Case Type(s):

Election/Voting Rights

Special Collection(s):

Law Firm Antiracism Alliance (LFAA) project

Key Dates

Filing Date: Oct. 30, 2016

Closing Date: Nov. 9, 2016

Case Ongoing: No

Plaintiffs

Plaintiff Description:

Pennsylvania Democratic Party

Plaintiff Type(s):

Non-profit NON-religious organization

Public Interest Lawyer: No

Filed Pro Se: No

Class Action Sought: No

Class Action Outcome: Not sought

Defendants

Private Entity/Person

Donald J. Trump for President, Inc.

Roger J. Stone, Jr.

Stop the Steal Inc.

State

Republican Party of Pennsylvania

Facility Type(s):

Non-government non-profit

Case Details

Causes of Action:

42 U.S.C. § 1983

Civil Rights Act of 1957/1960, 52 U.S.C. § 10101 (previously 42 U.S.C. § 1971)

Other Dockets:

Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2:16-cv-05664

Available Documents:

Any published opinion

Complaint (any)

Trial Court Docket

Outcome

Prevailing Party: Defendant

Relief Granted:

None

Source of Relief:

None

Issues

Discrimination Basis:

Race discrimination

Affected Race(s):

Black

Race, unspecified

Voting:

Election administration

Voting: General & Misc.

Recommended Citation